- Preface13
- Technical Note19
- Chapter One: A General Introduction: On Becoming a Buddha
- 1. Introductory Remarks21
- 2. Buddhology22
- 3. Buddhist Soteriology30
- (a) Emic and Etic Perceptions of Buddhism30
- (b) The Fundamental Features of Buddhist Soteriology33
- (c) The Mahāyāna Perception of the Quintessence of Buddhist Teachings35
- (d) Buddhist Soteriological Models and Goals36
- (e) Two Mahāyāna Soteriological Models of Becoming a Buddha38
- 4. Ontology41
- 5. Buddhist Epistemology and Gnoseology43
- 6. Buddhist Axiology45
- (a) The Three-Vow Scheme45
- (b) Comparing and Contrasting the Three Vows47
- 7. Concluding Remarks56
Chapter Two: Previous Studies on Bodhicitta
1. Introductory Remarks ........................................................................................ ,..... 57
2. The Early Western Knowledge of Bodhicitta.......................................................... 58
3. Monographs on the Study of Bodhicitta.................................................... .............. 59
(a) Taishii Tagami (1990)................................................................................... 59
(b) Francis Brassard (2000)................................................................................ 60
4. Articles on Bodhieitta.............................................................................................. . 61
(a) Kumataro Kawada (1965)............................................................................. 61
(b) Lal Mani Joshi (1971)................................................................................... 62
(c) S. K. Nanayakkara (1971)............................................................................. 62
(d) Lobsang Dargay (1981)............................................................... .................. 63
(e) Gareth Sparham (1987)................................................................................. 63
(f) Gareth Sparham (1992)................................................................................. 64
5. Studies on Bodhieitta in Specific Canonical Works................................................ 65
6. On Translating the Term Bodhicitta ........ ~............................................................... 69
7. A Study of Bodhicitta: Still a Desideratum............................................................. 70
8. Concluding Remarks................................................................................................ 71
Chapter Three: The Historical and Doctrinal Background of the Bodhicitta Concept
1. Introductory Remarks........ .... ......... .... ..... ... ... ... ......... ................ ...... .... .... ........ ........ 73
2. Bodhicitta as a Means of Compensating for the Loss of the Historical Buddha..... 74
3. The Doctrinal Foundations of Bodhicitta in Early Buddhism................................. 77
(a) A Buddha as a Discoverer and Pro claimer of the True Reality.................... 77
(b) The Plurality of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in Early Buddhism................... 79
(c) The Concept of the Resolve Made by Previous Buddhas............................. 80
(d) The Altruism of the Historical Buddha......................................................... 82
(e) Altruism in Early Buddhism... ........... ........ ..... ............ ........ ......... ........ ......... 84
(f) Prerequisites for Becoming a Buddha in Early Buddhism............................ 86.
(g) The 'Golden Rule' in Early Buddhism......................................................... 87
4. Concluding Remarks............................................................................................... 89
Chapter Four: The Buddha's First Resolve to Become a Buddha
1. Introductory Remarks..... ........... ..... ...... ... ..... ... ..... ....... ... .......... ....... ............ ..... ....... 91
2. The Historical Buddha as One of Many and Yet One ofa Kind............................. 92
3. Three Events Marking the Career of the Buddha.................................................... 92
(a) The First Event: The Initial Resolve to Become a Buddha........................... 94
(i) Attempts to Resolve the Illogicality of Several 'First Times' ............. 98
(ii) Was the Historical Bodhisattva 'King-Like' or 'Herdsman-Like'?.... 99
(b) The Second Event: Striving to Become a Buddha. ... ... .............. ..... ......... ..... 100
(c) The Third Event: The Time and Place of the Buddha's Awakening ........... 102
4. A Historical Sketch of the Buddha's Initial Resolve to Become a Buddha............ 104
5. Concluding Remarks............................................................................................... 105
Chapter Five: Mahayana, Bodhisattva, and Bodhicitta
1. Introductory Remarks........ .................. ............ ....... ... ..... .... ........ ...... ......... ..... ......... 107
2. The Concepts of Yana in Buddhism........................................................................ 109
(a) TheVariousModelsofYana ........................................................................ 110
(i) The One-Vehicle ModeL................................................................. 111
(ii) The Two-Vehicle ModeL................................................................ 112
(iii) The Three-Vehicle ModeL.............................................................. 113
(iv) The Four-Vehicle ModeL................................................................ 115
(v) The Five-Vehicle ModeL................................................................ 116
(vi) The Nine-Vehicle ModeL................................................................ 117
(vii) The n-Vehicle ModeL...................................... ............................... 118
(viii) The No-Vehicle ModeL................................................................... 119
(b) Which Vehicles Are Buddhist?.................................................................... 120
(c) Mahayana .............................................. ~....................................................... 121
(i) Dissent on the Origin of Mahayana.............................................. ..... 121
(ii) The Content of Mahayana.............................................. ................... 122
(iii) Is Mahayana Indispensable? Is Vajrayana Indispensable? ............... 125
3. The Concepts of Sattva and Bodhisattva................................................................ 126
(a) No Bodhisattvas without Sattvas................................................ .................. 127
(b) Faith-oriented and Reason-oriented Sentient Beings.................................... 128
(c) The Term Bodhisattva...................................... ............................................. 129
(d) Synonyms of Bodhisattva.............................................................................. 133
(e) Types of Bodhisattvas .......................................... ;........................................ 134
(i) Historical, Celestial, and Earthly Bodhisattvas................................. 135
(ii) Human and Non-human Bodhisattvas............................................... 136
(iii) Male and Female Bodhisattvas......................................................... 137
(iv) Ordained and Lay Bodhisattvas........................................................ 139
(v) Bodhisattvas with Different Backgrounds........................................ 139
(t) The Sravaka-Bodhisattva Distinction........................................................... 140
(g) The Concept of Vajrasattva.......................................................................... 142
4. The Term Bodhicitta and Its Definition................................................................. 144
(a) The Term Bodhicitta in the A$!asahasrika.................................................... 144
(b) The Term Bodhicitta in the Drumakinnararajapariprcchasutra.................. 145
(c) The Term Bodhicitta in the Bodhisattvabhumi............................................. 148
(d) The Relative Chronology ofthe A$!asahasrika" and the Bodhisattvabhumi.. 148
(e) The Terms Cittotpada, Bodhicitta, and Bodhicittotpada.............................. 149
(t) Some Definitions of Bodhicitta or Cittotpada.............................................. 151
(g) How Indispensable Is Bodhicitta for a Bodhisattva? .................................... 154
(h) Benefits and Functions of Bodhicitta .................................................. :......... 160
5. Concluding Remarks.............................................................................................. 166
Chapter Six: The Two Bodhicittotpiida Traditions
I. Introductory Remarks............................................................................................. 169
2. The Two Bodhicittotpada Traditions..................................................................... 170
3. Tibetan Assessments of the Two Bodhicittotpada Traditions............................... 172
4. The Names of the Two Bodhicittotpada Traditions............................................... 173
5. The Two Bodhicittotpada Traditions: The Basis of the Distinctions .................... 175
6. The Two Bodhicittotpada Traditions: Personal Authorities ................................. 175
7. The Two Bodhicittotpada Traditions: Scriptural Authorities................................ 176
8. The Historical Background of the Bodhicittotpada RituaL.................................. 177
9. What Is Actually Generated by the Ritual?............................................................ 180
10. The Optionality of an Officiant in the Two Traditions.................................. ........ 181
11. Qualifications for Officiants in the Two Traditions............................................... 182
12. The Eligibility of Candidates in the Two Traditions.............................................. 183
13. The Preparatory Procedures of the Bodhicittotpada Ritual................................... 186
14. The Main Procedures of the Bodhicittotpada RituaL.......................................... 187
15. The Concluding Procedures of the Bodhicittotpada Ritual................................... 188
16. Observances and Offences in the Two Traditions................................................. 188
(a) The Cardinal Transgressions in the Mafijusn-Nagiirjuna Tradition............ 189
(b) The Cardinal Transgressions in the Maitreya-Asailga Tradition.................. 191
(c) The Minor Offences in the Two Traditions.................................................. 192
17. Reestablishing a Broken Vow in the Two Traditions............................................ 193
18. Concluding Remarks.............................................................................................. 194
Chapter Seven: A Typology of Bodhicitta
1. Introductory Remarks............................................................................................. 195
2. An Overview of the Five Types of Bodhicitta........................................................ 196
3. Ethico-Spiritual Bodhicitta..................................................................................... 197
4. Gnoseological Bodhicitta....................................................................................... 198
(a) What Gnoseologicai Bodhicitta Is................................................................. 198
(b) Some Synonyms of Gnoseological Bodhicitta.............................................. 198
(c) Some Salient Features of Gnoseological Bodhicitta..................................... 199
(d) Who Possesses Gnoseological Bodhicitta?.................................................. 201
(e) Gnosis as Abiding in the Body...... ..... ................. ........ ......... ...... ................... 202
(f) The Three Modes of Emergence Open to Gnosis......................................... 204
5. Ontological Bodhicitta........................................................................................... 205
(a) The Conception of Ontological Bodhicitta................................................... 206
(b) An Outcome of a Philosophical Quest? ...... ........ ..... ......... ..... ........... ........... 211
(c) Synonyms and Near Synonyms of Ontological Bodhicitta........................... 214
(d) Two Distinct Perceptions of Ontological Bodhicitta.;.................................. 216
(e) Some Salient Features of Ontological Bodhicitta......................................... 217
6. Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta............................................................................ 217
(a) What is Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta?.................................................. 218
(b) Some Salient Features of Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta......................... 220
( c) Probable Motives for the Conception of Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta.. 220
(d) The Problems of Physicality and Sexuality in Buddhism............................. 221
(e) Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta in Yogic Practices.................................... 223
7. SemeiologicalBodhicitta....................................................................................... 225
(a) General Features of Bodhicitta Symbolism.................................................. 225
(b) Putting Symbolism in a Buddhist Philosophical Context... ....... ........ ........... 226
(c) Three Kinds of Semeiological Bodhicitta: Visual, Verbal, and VisionaL.. 227
(d) Vajrayana Symbolism and Literalism..... ............ ... ... ....... ... ...... ... ....... .......... 231
8. A Concluding Assessment of the Five Types of Bodhicitta.................................. 232
Chapter Eight: Traditional Classifications of Bodhicitta
1. Introductory Remarks....... ..... .... ........... .... ...... .......... ........... .... ........... ........ ... ....... ... 235
2. Bodhicitta as a Fusion of SunyatiilPrajfzii and KarUlJiiIUpiiya............................... 235
(a) The Term SunyatiikarUlJiigarbha.................................................................. 236
(b) The Term SunyatiikarUlJiibhinna................................................................... 238
(c) The Importance of Upiiya and Prajfzii ...................................................... ,.... 239
(d) Tension between the Two Poles of Emptiness and Compassion.................. 243
(e) Union of Emptiness and Compassion: A Tibetan Controversy.................... 245
(f) Three Positions on the Fusion of SunyatiilPrajfzii and KarUlJiiIUpiiya........ 245
3. SubclassifYing Bodhicitta into Praflidhicitta and Prasthiinacitta........................... 246
(a) The Locus Classicus of the Classification..................................................... 246
(b) The Possible Historical Development of the Subclassification.... ... ..... ........ 248
(c) The Pervasiveness of the Classification........................................................ 248
(d) Distinctions, Interpretations, and Controversies........................................... 249
4. SubclassifYing Bodhicitta into Conventional and Absolute................................... 251
(a) Two Strands of the Conventional-Absolute Classification........................... 252
(b) Textual Sources of the Conventional-Absolute Classification..................... 253
(c) The Relative Chronology of the Conventional-Absolute Classification....... 255
(d) Two Different Perceptions of Conventional and Absolute Bodhicitta......... 256
(e) Can Absolute Bodhicitta be Generated Ritually? A Tibetan Controversy.... 258
5. Leading to the Goal and Not Leading to the Goa1................................................. 261
6. A Stable One and an Unstable One........................................................................ 262
7. Twofold Classifications of Cittotpiida in the ViniscayasarrzgrahalJf..................... 263
(a) Samiidiinasiirrzketika and Dharmatiipratilambhika....................................... 263
(b) The One That Is Uncertain and the One That Is Certain. .... .... .... ... ........... .... 264
(c) The One That Is Impure and the One That Is Pure...... .... .............. ........ ... .... 264
(d) The One That Is Weak and the One That Is Strong...................................... 265
(e) The One That Has Yielded the Ultimate Result and the One
That Has Not yet........................................................................................... 265
8. Undistinguished and Distinguished Cittotpiida...................................................... 266
9. The One Characterised by Karuflii and the One Characterised by Prajfzii............ 266
10. Ongoing and Non-Ongoing Cittotpiida............................................... ................... 267
11. A Threefold Classification: King-like, Boatman-like, and Herdsman-like.......... 267
(a) Some Indian Precursors of the Classification... ..... .... .... ......... ...... ..... .... ....... 268
(b) Assessments by Some Tibetan Scholars ................................. ,..................... 269
12. A Fourfold Classification....................................................................................... 271
13. SubclassifYing Bodhicitta into Ten Types.............................................................. 273
14. Twenty-Two Kinds of Cittotpiida.......................................................................... 273
(a) Sources of the Twenty-Two Kinds of Cittotpada......................................... 273
(b) A Historical Sketch...... ........... ........ ......... ......... ....... ..... ............... ........ ......... 274
15. Concluding Remarks.............................................................................................. 275
Chapter Nine: Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta
1. Introductory Remarks.............................................................................................. 277
2. Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta in the Sutra Sources.................... 277
3. Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta in the Bodhisattvabhumi............ 279
4. Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta in the MahayanasutraZa7}'lki'ira... 283
5. Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta as Discussed Elsewhere.. ........... 284
6. Compassion as the Root Cause of Bodhicitta........................................................ 285
7. Concluding Remarks.............................................................................................. 289
Chapter Ten: The Mahayana Observances and the Maintenance ofBodhicitta
1. Introductory Remarks.............................................................................................. 291
2. The Model of the Four Cardinal Transgressions (miiZapatti).................................. 292
3. Pledges and the Maintenance of Bodhicitta in the Kriyatantras............................. 295
(a) The Vairocanabhisa7}'lbodhitantra................................................................ 296
(b) The Guhyatantra........................................................................................... 298
(c) The Susiddhikaratantra................................................................................. 300
(d) The Subahupariprcchatantra........................................................................ 303
4. Pledges and Maintenance of Bodhicitta in the Yogatantras.................................. 305
(a) The Durgatiparisodhanatantra..................................................................... 305
(b) The Vajrasikharatantra................................................................................. 307
(c) The Srfparamiidyatantra.......... ........... .... ...... ............ ..... ............................... 310
(d) The Tattvasa7}'lgrahasutra.................................................................. ........... 312
5. Pledges and the Maintenance of Bodhicitta in the Mahayoga System.................. 313
(a) The Buddhasamayogatantra ......................... ,............................................... 319
(b) The Kr$/Jayamaritantra and Guhyasamajabhi$ekavidhi............................... 320
(c) The GuhyendutiZakatantra............................................................................ 328
(d) The *Guhyagarbhatantra.............................................................................. 329
(e) Padmasambhava's Categories of Pledges..................................................... 329
6. All Mahayana Precepts Relating to the Maintenance of Bodhicitta...................... 330
7. Concluding Remarks.............................................................................................. 331
Chapter Eleven: The Relapse and Restoration of Bodhicitta
1. Introductory Remarks............................................................................................. 333
2. Impairment to or Loss of Bodhicitta...................................................................... 334
3. Causes of the Partial or Total Breach of Vows...................................................... 337
4. Causes of Impairment to or Loss of Bodhicitta...................................................... 338
5. The Abandonment of Bodhicitta as the Severest Transgression............................ 346
6. The Types of Setbacks ...................... ;.................................................................... 348
7. The Restorability of Bodhicitta ...................................... : ....... ;............................... 351
8. Retaking and Restoring Bodhicitta........................................................................ 352
9. The Four Strengths................................................................................................. 355
10. Concluding Remarks.............................................................................................. 356
Appendix A: A Critical Edition of the Sanskrit Text of Bodliisattvabhumi 1.2
1. Introduction............................................................................................................ 357
(a) Extant Manuscripts, Critical Editions, and
Other Related Studies on the Bodhisattvabhumi.......................................... 357
(b) A Brief Description of the Extant Manuscripts and Editions....................... 362
(c) Some Observations as to the Stemmatic Relation of the MSS..................... 365
(d) Method and Abbreviations Employed in the Critical
Edition of the Sanskrit Text.......................................................................... 366
2. The Text. ............................................................................................................... " 368
Appendix B: A Critical Edition of the Tibetan Text of Bodhisattvabhumi 1.2
1. Introduction........................................ ................ ........................... ......................... 379
2. The Text................................................................................................................. 382
Abbreviations and Bibliography
1. Journals, Collections, Reference Books, Series, and Other Abbreviations............ 391
2. Indian Sources........................................................................................................ 393
3. Tibetan Sources...................................................................................................... 404
4. Secondary Sources................................................................................................. 411
Index............................................................................................................................... 431