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The Resolve to Become a Buddha

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Becoming a buddha ('Awakened One') under the Bodhi tree (Ficus religiosa) was undoubtedly the most significant event in the career of the historical Buddha, and may be considered the starting point of Buddhism. According to both Mahāyāna ('Greater Vehicle') and Hīnayāna ('Lesser Vehicle') or non-Mahāyāna, the historical Buddha had sometime in the distant past resolved to become a buddha, thereby launching out on the career of a bodhisattva, that is, a sentient being who strives to attain the highest state of awakening. A major distinction between non-Mahāyāna and Mahāyāna, however, is that for the former the status of being a bodhisattva or buddha is confined to the historical Buddha (or a few others like him), while the ultimate soteriological goal of a disciple is Arhatship (that is, the final state of a saint who has attained release from the cycle of birth and death) primarily for oneself. For the latter, by contrast, even an ordinary sentient being is capable of undertaking the long and arduous career of a bodhisattva by generating bodhicitta and finally becoming a buddha (just like the historical Buddha himself), primarily for the sake of many other sentient beings. In sum, a person who possesses or has generated bodhicitta is considered to be a bodhisattva, and the form of Buddhism concerned with the theory and practice of a bodhisattva is known as Mahāyāna. The idea of bodhicitta in the sense of the resolve to become a buddha is hence the bedrock of Mahāyāna, and is what distinguishes a bodhisattva from a śrāvaka, Mahāyāna from non-Mahāyāna. It is presupposed by all forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism including Vajrayāna ('Diamond Vehicle'), or tantric Mahāyāna.
      Multiple internal and external factors must have contributed to the formation and further development of the concept of bodhicitta. The psychological need of the Buddhists to make up in one way or another for the demise of the historical Buddha may have been one of the principal internal factors that contributed to the formation of the idea of the resolve to become a buddha. Such an idea would not have lacked the doctrinal justification or legitimisation that it needed, for the non-Mahāyāna sources seem to abound in doctrinal elements that could easily be used to underpin the concept of bodhicitta. In its early phase of development, the idea of generating bodhicitta probably meant only the initial resolve to become a buddha, a momentous decision made by an aspirant seeking Buddhahood (buddhatva). This was seen as an indispensable but not necessarily a sufficient condition for the attainment of Buddhahood. However, gradually the idea came to encompass the entire theory and practice of a bodhisattva and to be considered not only a necessary but in fact a sufficient condition for such an attainment. In the course of time, even the true reality that a bodhisattva or buddha experiences as a spiritual event, the meditative insight or gnosis by means of which the true reality is experienced, and all conceivable resources or means—be they psycho-physiological, visual, verbal, or visional impulses that could be employed for becoming a buddha—came to be regarded as bodhicitta. It is this idea as found explicated in Indian and Tibetan Mahāyāna Buddhism that the present study seeks to examine. (Wangchuk, introductory remarks, 21–22)

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Citation	Wangchuk, Dorji. The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. Studia Philologica Buddhica Monograph Series 23. Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007. https://dorjipenjore.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/the-resolve-to-become-a-buddha-a-study-of-the-bodhicitta-concept-in-indo-tibetan-buddhism.pdf.

Table of Contents About the Book Texts Translated Quotes

Preface ............................................................................................................................ 13 Technical Note ................................................................................................................ 19 Chapter One: A General Introduction: On Becoming a Buddha 1. Introductory Remarks............................................................................................... 21 2. Buddhology ........ ; .............................. ;..................................................................... 22 3. Buddhist Soteriology............................................................................................... 30 (a) Ernie and Etie Perceptions of Buddhism ... :.......................................... ......... 30 (b) The Fundamental Features of Buddhist Soteriology..................................... 33 (c) The Mahayana Perception of the Quint\:ssence of Buddhist Teachings....... 35 (d) Buddhist Soteriological Models and Goals................................................... 36 (e) Two Mahayana Soteriological Models of Becoming aBuddha................... 38 4. Ontology.................................................................................................................. 41 5. Buddhist Epistemology and Gnoseology................................................................ 43 6. Buddhist Axiology.................................................................................................. 45 (a) The1bree-VowScheme ...................................................... ;........................ 45 (b) Comparing and Contrasting the 1bree Vows................................................ 47 7. Concluding Remarks............................................................................................... 56 Chapter Two: Previous Studies on Bodhicitta 1. Introductory Remarks ........................................................................................ ,..... 57 2. The Early Western Knowledge of Bodhicitta.......................................................... 58 3. Monographs on the Study of Bodhicitta.................................................... .............. 59 (a) Taishii Tagami (1990)................................................................................... 59 (b) Francis Brassard (2000)................................................................................ 60 4. Articles on Bodhieitta.............................................................................................. . 61 (a) Kumataro Kawada (1965)............................................................................. 61 (b) Lal Mani Joshi (1971)................................................................................... 62 (c) S. K. Nanayakkara (1971)............................................................................. 62 (d) Lobsang Dargay (1981)............................................................... .................. 63 (e) Gareth Sparham (1987)................................................................................. 63 (f) Gareth Sparham (1992)................................................................................. 64 5. Studies on Bodhieitta in Specific Canonical Works................................................ 65 6. On Translating the Term Bodhicitta ........ ~............................................................... 69 7. A Study of Bodhicitta: Still a Desideratum............................................................. 70 8. Concluding Remarks................................................................................................ 71

Chapter Three: The Historical and Doctrinal Background of the Bodhicitta Concept 1. Introductory Remarks........ .... ......... .... ..... ... ... ... ......... ................ ...... .... .... ........ ........ 73 2. Bodhicitta as a Means of Compensating for the Loss of the Historical Buddha..... 74 3. The Doctrinal Foundations of Bodhicitta in Early Buddhism................................. 77 (a) A Buddha as a Discoverer and Pro claimer of the True Reality.................... 77 (b) The Plurality of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in Early Buddhism................... 79 (c) The Concept of the Resolve Made by Previous Buddhas............................. 80 (d) The Altruism of the Historical Buddha......................................................... 82 (e) Altruism in Early Buddhism... ........... ........ ..... ............ ........ ......... ........ ......... 84 (f) Prerequisites for Becoming a Buddha in Early Buddhism............................ 86. (g) The 'Golden Rule' in Early Buddhism......................................................... 87 4. Concluding Remarks............................................................................................... 89 Chapter Four: The Buddha's First Resolve to Become a Buddha 1. Introductory Remarks..... ........... ..... ...... ... ..... ... ..... ....... ... .......... ....... ............ ..... ....... 91 2. The Historical Buddha as One of Many and Yet One ofa Kind............................. 92 3. Three Events Marking the Career of the Buddha.................................................... 92 (a) The First Event: The Initial Resolve to Become a Buddha........................... 94 (i) Attempts to Resolve the Illogicality of Several 'First Times' ............. 98 (ii) Was the Historical Bodhisattva 'King-Like' or 'Herdsman-Like'?.... 99 (b) The Second Event: Striving to Become a Buddha. ... ... .............. ..... ......... ..... 100 (c) The Third Event: The Time and Place of the Buddha's Awakening ........... 102 4. A Historical Sketch of the Buddha's Initial Resolve to Become a Buddha............ 104 5. Concluding Remarks............................................................................................... 105 Chapter Five: Mahayana, Bodhisattva, and Bodhicitta 1. Introductory Remarks........ .................. ............ ....... ... ..... .... ........ ...... ......... ..... ......... 107 2. The Concepts of Yana in Buddhism........................................................................ 109 (a) TheVariousModelsofYana ........................................................................ 110 (i) The One-Vehicle ModeL................................................................. 111 (ii) The Two-Vehicle ModeL................................................................ 112 (iii) The Three-Vehicle ModeL.............................................................. 113 (iv) The Four-Vehicle ModeL................................................................ 115 (v) The Five-Vehicle ModeL................................................................ 116 (vi) The Nine-Vehicle ModeL................................................................ 117 (vii) The n-Vehicle ModeL...................................... ............................... 118 (viii) The No-Vehicle ModeL................................................................... 119 (b) Which Vehicles Are Buddhist?.................................................................... 120 (c) Mahayana .............................................. ~....................................................... 121 (i) Dissent on the Origin of Mahayana.............................................. ..... 121 (ii) The Content of Mahayana.............................................. ................... 122 (iii) Is Mahayana Indispensable? Is Vajrayana Indispensable? ............... 125 3. The Concepts of Sattva and Bodhisattva................................................................ 126 (a) No Bodhisattvas without Sattvas................................................ .................. 127 (b) Faith-oriented and Reason-oriented Sentient Beings.................................... 128 (c) The Term Bodhisattva...................................... ............................................. 129 (d) Synonyms of Bodhisattva.............................................................................. 133 (e) Types of Bodhisattvas .......................................... ;........................................ 134 (i) Historical, Celestial, and Earthly Bodhisattvas................................. 135

(ii) Human and Non-human Bodhisattvas............................................... 136 (iii) Male and Female Bodhisattvas......................................................... 137 (iv) Ordained and Lay Bodhisattvas........................................................ 139 (v) Bodhisattvas with Different Backgrounds........................................ 139 (t) The Sravaka-Bodhisattva Distinction........................................................... 140 (g) The Concept of Vajrasattva.......................................................................... 142 4. The Term Bodhicitta and Its Definition................................................................. 144 (a) The Term Bodhicitta in the A$!asahasrika.................................................... 144 (b) The Term Bodhicitta in the Drumakinnararajapariprcchasutra.................. 145 (c) The Term Bodhicitta in the Bodhisattvabhumi............................................. 148 (d) The Relative Chronology ofthe A$!asahasrika" and the Bodhisattvabhumi.. 148 (e) The Terms Cittotpada, Bodhicitta, and Bodhicittotpada.............................. 149 (t) Some Definitions of Bodhicitta or Cittotpada.............................................. 151 (g) How Indispensable Is Bodhicitta for a Bodhisattva? .................................... 154 (h) Benefits and Functions of Bodhicitta .................................................. :......... 160 5. Concluding Remarks.............................................................................................. 166 Chapter Six: The Two Bodhicittotpiida Traditions I. Introductory Remarks............................................................................................. 169 2. The Two Bodhicittotpada Traditions..................................................................... 170 3. Tibetan Assessments of the Two Bodhicittotpada Traditions............................... 172 4. The Names of the Two Bodhicittotpada Traditions............................................... 173 5. The Two Bodhicittotpada Traditions: The Basis of the Distinctions .................... 175 6. The Two Bodhicittotpada Traditions: Personal Authorities ................................. 175 7. The Two Bodhicittotpada Traditions: Scriptural Authorities................................ 176 8. The Historical Background of the Bodhicittotpada RituaL.................................. 177 9. What Is Actually Generated by the Ritual?............................................................ 180 10. The Optionality of an Officiant in the Two Traditions.................................. ........ 181 11. Qualifications for Officiants in the Two Traditions............................................... 182 12. The Eligibility of Candidates in the Two Traditions.............................................. 183 13. The Preparatory Procedures of the Bodhicittotpada Ritual................................... 186 14. The Main Procedures of the Bodhicittotpada RituaL.......................................... 187 15. The Concluding Procedures of the Bodhicittotpada Ritual................................... 188 16. Observances and Offences in the Two Traditions................................................. 188 (a) The Cardinal Transgressions in the Mafijusn-Nagiirjuna Tradition............ 189 (b) The Cardinal Transgressions in the Maitreya-Asailga Tradition.................. 191 (c) The Minor Offences in the Two Traditions.................................................. 192 17. Reestablishing a Broken Vow in the Two Traditions............................................ 193 18. Concluding Remarks.............................................................................................. 194 Chapter Seven: A Typology of Bodhicitta 1. Introductory Remarks............................................................................................. 195 2. An Overview of the Five Types of Bodhicitta........................................................ 196 3. Ethico-Spiritual Bodhicitta..................................................................................... 197 4. Gnoseological Bodhicitta....................................................................................... 198 (a) What Gnoseologicai Bodhicitta Is................................................................. 198 (b) Some Synonyms of Gnoseological Bodhicitta.............................................. 198 (c) Some Salient Features of Gnoseological Bodhicitta..................................... 199 (d) Who Possesses Gnoseological Bodhicitta?.................................................. 201 (e) Gnosis as Abiding in the Body...... ..... ................. ........ ......... ...... ................... 202

(f) The Three Modes of Emergence Open to Gnosis......................................... 204 5. Ontological Bodhicitta........................................................................................... 205 (a) The Conception of Ontological Bodhicitta................................................... 206 (b) An Outcome of a Philosophical Quest? ...... ........ ..... ......... ..... ........... ........... 211 (c) Synonyms and Near Synonyms of Ontological Bodhicitta........................... 214 (d) Two Distinct Perceptions of Ontological Bodhicitta.;.................................. 216 (e) Some Salient Features of Ontological Bodhicitta......................................... 217 6. Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta............................................................................ 217 (a) What is Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta?.................................................. 218 (b) Some Salient Features of Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta......................... 220 ( c) Probable Motives for the Conception of Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta.. 220 (d) The Problems of Physicality and Sexuality in Buddhism............................. 221 (e) Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta in Yogic Practices.................................... 223 7. SemeiologicalBodhicitta....................................................................................... 225 (a) General Features of Bodhicitta Symbolism.................................................. 225 (b) Putting Symbolism in a Buddhist Philosophical Context... ....... ........ ........... 226 (c) Three Kinds of Semeiological Bodhicitta: Visual, Verbal, and VisionaL.. 227 (d) Vajrayana Symbolism and Literalism..... ............ ... ... ....... ... ...... ... ....... .......... 231 8. A Concluding Assessment of the Five Types of Bodhicitta.................................. 232 Chapter Eight: Traditional Classifications of Bodhicitta 1. Introductory Remarks....... ..... .... ........... .... ...... .......... ........... .... ........... ........ ... ....... ... 235 2. Bodhicitta as a Fusion of SunyatiilPrajfzii and KarUlJiiIUpiiya............................... 235 (a) The Term SunyatiikarUlJiigarbha.................................................................. 236 (b) The Term SunyatiikarUlJiibhinna................................................................... 238 (c) The Importance of Upiiya and Prajfzii ...................................................... ,.... 239 (d) Tension between the Two Poles of Emptiness and Compassion.................. 243 (e) Union of Emptiness and Compassion: A Tibetan Controversy.................... 245 (f) Three Positions on the Fusion of SunyatiilPrajfzii and KarUlJiiIUpiiya........ 245 3. SubclassifYing Bodhicitta into Praflidhicitta and Prasthiinacitta........................... 246 (a) The Locus Classicus of the Classification..................................................... 246 (b) The Possible Historical Development of the Subclassification.... ... ..... ........ 248 (c) The Pervasiveness of the Classification........................................................ 248 (d) Distinctions, Interpretations, and Controversies........................................... 249 4. SubclassifYing Bodhicitta into Conventional and Absolute................................... 251 (a) Two Strands of the Conventional-Absolute Classification........................... 252 (b) Textual Sources of the Conventional-Absolute Classification..................... 253 (c) The Relative Chronology of the Conventional-Absolute Classification....... 255 (d) Two Different Perceptions of Conventional and Absolute Bodhicitta......... 256 (e) Can Absolute Bodhicitta be Generated Ritually? A Tibetan Controversy.... 258 5. Leading to the Goal and Not Leading to the Goa1................................................. 261 6. A Stable One and an Unstable One........................................................................ 262 7. Twofold Classifications of Cittotpiida in the ViniscayasarrzgrahalJf..................... 263 (a) Samiidiinasiirrzketika and Dharmatiipratilambhika....................................... 263 (b) The One That Is Uncertain and the One That Is Certain. .... .... .... ... ........... .... 264 (c) The One That Is Impure and the One That Is Pure...... .... .............. ........ ... .... 264 (d) The One That Is Weak and the One That Is Strong...................................... 265 (e) The One That Has Yielded the Ultimate Result and the One That Has Not yet........................................................................................... 265 8. Undistinguished and Distinguished Cittotpiida...................................................... 266 9. The One Characterised by Karuflii and the One Characterised by Prajfzii............ 266

10. Ongoing and Non-Ongoing Cittotpiida............................................... ................... 267 11. A Threefold Classification: King-like, Boatman-like, and Herdsman-like.......... 267 (a) Some Indian Precursors of the Classification... ..... .... .... ......... ...... ..... .... ....... 268 (b) Assessments by Some Tibetan Scholars ................................. ,..................... 269 12. A Fourfold Classification....................................................................................... 271 13. SubclassifYing Bodhicitta into Ten Types.............................................................. 273 14. Twenty-Two Kinds of Cittotpiida.......................................................................... 273 (a) Sources of the Twenty-Two Kinds of Cittotpada......................................... 273 (b) A Historical Sketch...... ........... ........ ......... ......... ....... ..... ............... ........ ......... 274 15. Concluding Remarks.............................................................................................. 275 Chapter Nine: Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta 1. Introductory Remarks.............................................................................................. 277 2. Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta in the Sutra Sources.................... 277 3. Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta in the Bodhisattvabhumi............ 279 4. Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta in the MahayanasutraZa7}'lki'ira... 283 5. Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta as Discussed Elsewhere.. ........... 284 6. Compassion as the Root Cause of Bodhicitta........................................................ 285 7. Concluding Remarks.............................................................................................. 289 Chapter Ten: The Mahayana Observances and the Maintenance ofBodhicitta 1. Introductory Remarks.............................................................................................. 291 2. The Model of the Four Cardinal Transgressions (miiZapatti).................................. 292 3. Pledges and the Maintenance of Bodhicitta in the Kriyatantras............................. 295 (a) The Vairocanabhisa7}'lbodhitantra................................................................ 296 (b) The Guhyatantra........................................................................................... 298 (c) The Susiddhikaratantra................................................................................. 300 (d) The Subahupariprcchatantra........................................................................ 303 4. Pledges and Maintenance of Bodhicitta in the Yogatantras.................................. 305 (a) The Durgatiparisodhanatantra..................................................................... 305 (b) The Vajrasikharatantra................................................................................. 307 (c) The Srfparamiidyatantra.......... ........... .... ...... ............ ..... ............................... 310 (d) The Tattvasa7}'lgrahasutra.................................................................. ........... 312 5. Pledges and the Maintenance of Bodhicitta in the Mahayoga System.................. 313 (a) The Buddhasamayogatantra ......................... ,............................................... 319 (b) The Kr$/Jayamaritantra and Guhyasamajabhi$ekavidhi............................... 320 (c) The GuhyendutiZakatantra............................................................................ 328 (d) The *Guhyagarbhatantra.............................................................................. 329 (e) Padmasambhava's Categories of Pledges..................................................... 329 6. All Mahayana Precepts Relating to the Maintenance of Bodhicitta...................... 330 7. Concluding Remarks.............................................................................................. 331 Chapter Eleven: The Relapse and Restoration of Bodhicitta 1. Introductory Remarks............................................................................................. 333 2. Impairment to or Loss of Bodhicitta...................................................................... 334 3. Causes of the Partial or Total Breach of Vows...................................................... 337 4. Causes of Impairment to or Loss of Bodhicitta...................................................... 338 5. The Abandonment of Bodhicitta as the Severest Transgression............................ 346 6. The Types of Setbacks ...................... ;.................................................................... 348

7. The Restorability of Bodhicitta ...................................... : ....... ;............................... 351 8. Retaking and Restoring Bodhicitta........................................................................ 352 9. The Four Strengths................................................................................................. 355 10. Concluding Remarks.............................................................................................. 356 Appendix A: A Critical Edition of the Sanskrit Text of Bodliisattvabhumi 1.2 1. Introduction............................................................................................................ 357 (a) Extant Manuscripts, Critical Editions, and Other Related Studies on the Bodhisattvabhumi.......................................... 357 (b) A Brief Description of the Extant Manuscripts and Editions....................... 362 (c) Some Observations as to the Stemmatic Relation of the MSS..................... 365 (d) Method and Abbreviations Employed in the Critical Edition of the Sanskrit Text.......................................................................... 366 2. The Text. ............................................................................................................... " 368 Appendix B: A Critical Edition of the Tibetan Text of Bodhisattvabhumi 1.2 1. Introduction........................................ ................ ........................... ......................... 379 2. The Text................................................................................................................. 382 Abbreviations and Bibliography 1. Journals, Collections, Reference Books, Series, and Other Abbreviations............ 391 2. Indian Sources........................................................................................................ 393 3. Tibetan Sources...................................................................................................... 404 4. Secondary Sources................................................................................................. 411

Index............................................................................................................................... 431