The Resolve to Become a Buddha

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Becoming a buddha ('Awakened One') under the Bodhi tree (Ficus religiosa) was undoubtedly the most significant event in the career of the historical Buddha, and may be considered the starting point of Buddhism. According to both Mahāyāna ('Greater Vehicle') and Hīnayāna ('Lesser Vehicle') or non-Mahāyāna, the historical Buddha had sometime in the distant past resolved to become a buddha, thereby launching out on the career of a bodhisattva, that is, a sentient being who strives to attain the highest state of awakening. A major distinction between non-Mahāyāna and Mahāyāna, however, is that for the former the status of being a bodhisattva or buddha is confined to the historical Buddha (or a few others like him), while the ultimate soteriological goal of a disciple is Arhatship (that is, the final state of a saint who has attained release from the cycle of birth and death) primarily for oneself. For the latter, by contrast, even an ordinary sentient being is capable of undertaking the long and arduous career of a bodhisattva by generating bodhicitta and finally becoming a buddha (just like the historical Buddha himself), primarily for the sake of many other sentient beings. In sum, a person who possesses or has generated bodhicitta is considered to be a bodhisattva, and the form of Buddhism concerned with the theory and practice of a bodhisattva is known as Mahāyāna. The idea of bodhicitta in the sense of the resolve to become a buddha is hence the bedrock of Mahāyāna, and is what distinguishes a bodhisattva from a śrāvaka, Mahāyāna from non-Mahāyāna. It is presupposed by all forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism including Vajrayāna ('Diamond Vehicle'), or tantric Mahāyāna.
Multiple internal and external factors must have contributed to the formation and further development of the concept of bodhicitta. The psychological need of the Buddhists to make up in one way or another for the demise of the historical Buddha may have been one of the principal internal factors that contributed to the formation of the idea of the resolve to become a buddha. Such an idea would not have lacked the doctrinal justification or legitimisation that it needed, for the non-Mahāyāna sources seem to abound in doctrinal elements that could easily be used to underpin the concept of bodhicitta. In its early phase of development, the idea of generating bodhicitta probably meant only the initial resolve to become a buddha, a momentous decision made by an aspirant seeking Buddhahood (buddhatva). This was seen as an indispensable but not necessarily a sufficient condition for the attainment of Buddhahood. However, gradually the idea came to encompass the entire theory and practice of a bodhisattva and to be considered not only a necessary but in fact a sufficient condition for such an attainment. In the course of time, even the true reality that a bodhisattva or buddha experiences as a spiritual event, the meditative insight or gnosis by means of which the true reality is experienced, and all conceivable resources or means—be they psycho-physiological, visual, verbal, or visional impulses that could be employed for becoming a buddha—came to be regarded as bodhicitta. It is this idea as found explicated in Indian and Tibetan Mahāyāna Buddhism that the present study seeks to examine. (Wangchuk, introductory remarks, 21–22)

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Citation	Wangchuk, Dorji. The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. Studia Philologica Buddhica Monograph Series 23. Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007. https://dorjipenjore.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/the-resolve-to-become-a-buddha-a-study-of-the-bodhicitta-concept-in-indo-tibetan-buddhism.pdf.

Preface13
Technical Note19

Chapter One: A General Introduction: On Becoming a Buddha

1. Introductory Remarks21
2. Buddhology22
3. Buddhist Soteriology30
- (a) Emic and Etic Perceptions of Buddhism30
- (b) The Fundamental Features of Buddhist Soteriology33
- (c) The Mahāyāna Perception of the Quintessence of Buddhist Teachings35
- (d) Buddhist Soteriological Models and Goals36
- (e) Two Mahāyāna Soteriological Models of Becoming a Buddha38
4. Ontology41
5. Buddhist Epistemology and Gnoseology43
6. Buddhist Axiology45
- (a) The Three-Vow Scheme45
- (b) Comparing and Contrasting the Three Vows47
7. Concluding Remarks56

Chapter Two: Previous Studies on Bodhicitta

1. Introductory Remarks57
2. The Early Western Knowledge of Bodhicitta58
3. Monographs on the Study of Bodhicitta59
- (a) Taishū Tagami (1990)59
- (b) Francis Brassard (2000)60
4. Articles on Bodhicitta61
- (a) Kumataro Kawada (1965)61
- (b) Lal Mani Joshi (1971)62
- (c) S. K. Nanayakkara (1971)62
- (d) Lobsang Dargay (1981)63
- (e) Gareth Sparham (1987)63
- (f) Gareth Sparham (1992)64
5. Studies on Bodhicitta in Specific Canonical Works65
6. On Translating the Term Bodhicitta69
7. A Study of Bodhicitta: Still a Desideratum70
8. Concluding Remarks71

Chapter Three: The Historical and Doctrinal Background of the Bodhicitta Concept
1. Introductory Remarks73
2. Bodhicitta as a Means of Compensating for the Loss of the Historical Buddha74
3. The Doctrinal Foundations of Bodhicitta in Early Buddhism77
- (a) A Buddha as a Discoverer and Proclaimer of the True Reality77
- (b) The Plurality of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in Early Buddhism79
- (c) The Concept of the Resolve Made by Previous Buddhas80
- (d) The Altruism of the Historical Buddha82
- (e) Altruism in Early Buddhism84
- (f) Prerequisites for Becoming a Buddha in Early Buddhism86
- (g) The 'Golden Rule' in Early Buddhism87
4. Concluding Remarks89

Chapter Four: The Buddha's First Resolve to Become a Buddha

1. Introductory Remarks91
2. The Historical Buddha as One of Many and Yet One of a Kind92
3. Three Events Marking the Career of the Buddha92
- (a) The First Event: The Initial Resolve to Become a Buddha94
  - (i) Attempts to Resolve the Illogicality of Several 'First Times'98
  - (ii) Was the Historical Bodhisattva 'King-Like' or 'Herdsman-Like'?99
- (b) The Second Event: Striving to Become a Buddha100
- (c) The Third Event: The Time and Place of the Buddha's Awakening102
4. A Historical Sketch of the Buddha's Initial Resolve to Become a Buddha104
5. Concluding Remarks105

Chapter Five: Mahāyāna, Bodhisattva, and Bodhicitta

1. Introductory Remarks107
2. The Concepts of Yāna in Buddhism109
- (a) The Various Models of Yāna110
  - (i) The One-Vehicle Model111
  - (ii) The Two-Vehicle Model112
  - (iii) The Three-Vehicle Model113
  - (iv) The Four-Vehicle Model115
  - (v) The Five-Vehicle Model116
  - (vi) The Nine-Vehicle Model117
  - (vii) The n-Vehicle Model118
  - (viii) The No-Vehicle Model119
- (b) Which Vehicles Are Buddhist?120
- (c) Mahāyāna121
  - ((i) Dissent on the Origin of Mahayana121
  - ((ii) The Content of Mahāyāna122
  - ((iii) Is Mahāyāna Indispensable? Is Vajrayāna Indispensable?125
(3. The Concepts of Sattva and Bodhisattva126
- (a) No Bodhisattvas without Sattvas127
- (b) Faith-oriented and Reason-oriented Sentient Beings128
- (c) The Term Bodhisattva129
- (d) Synonyms of Bodhisattva133
- (e) Types of Bodhisattvas134
  - (i) Historical, Celestial, and Earthly Bodhisattvas135
  - (ii) Human and Non-human Bodhisattvas136
  - (iii) Male and Female Bodhisattvas137
  - (iv) Ordained and Lay Bodhisattvas139
  - (v) Bodhisattvas with Different Backgrounds139
- (f) The Śrāvaka-Bodhisattva Distinction140
- (g) The Concept of Vajrasattva142
4. The Term Bodhicitta and Its Definition144
- (a) The Term Bodhicitta in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā144
- (b) The Term Bodhicitta in the Drumakinnararājaparipṛcchāsūtra145
- (c) The Term Bodhicitta in the Bodhisattvabhūmi148
- (d) The Relative Chronology of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā and the Bodhisattvabhūmi148
- (e) The Terms Cittotpāda, Bodhicitta, and Bodhicittotpāda149
- (f) Some Definitions of Bodhicitta or Cittotpāda151
- (g) How Indispensable Is Bodhicitta for a Bodhisattva?154
- (h) Benefits and Functions of Bodhicitta160
5. Concluding Remarks166

Chapter Six: The Two Bodhicittotpāda Traditions

I. Introductory Remarks169
2. The Two Bodhicittotpāda Traditions170
3. Tibetan Assessments of the Two Bodhicittotpāda Traditions172
4. The Names of the Two Bodhicittotpāda Traditions173
5. The Two Bodhicittotpāda Traditions: The Basis of the Distinctions175
6. The Two Bodhicittotpāda Traditions: Personal Authorities175
7. The Two Bodhicittotpāda Traditions: Scriptural Authorities176
8. The Historical Background of the Bodhicittotpāda Ritual177
9. What Is Actually Generated by the Ritual?180
10. The Optionality of an Officiant in the Two Traditions181
11. Qualifications for Officiants in the Two Traditions182
12. The Eligibility of Candidates in the Two Traditions183
13. The Preparatory Procedures of the Bodhicittotpāda Ritual186
14. The Main Procedures of the Bodhicittotpāda Ritual187
15. The Concluding Procedures of the Bodhicittotpāda Ritual188
16. Observances and Offences in the Two Traditions188
- (a) The Cardinal Transgressions in the Mañjuśrī-Nāgārjuna Tradition189
- (b) The Cardinal Transgressions in the Maitreya-Asaṅga Tradition191
- (c) The Minor Offences in the Two Traditions192
17. Reestablishing a Broken Vow in the Two Traditions193
18. Concluding Remarks194

Chapter Seven: A Typology of Bodhicitta

1. Introductory Remarks195
2. An Overview of the Five Types of Bodhicitta196
3. Ethico-Spiritual Bodhicitta197
4. Gnoseological Bodhicitta198
- (a) What Gnoseologicai Bodhicitta Is198
- (b) Some Synonyms of Gnoseological Bodhicitta198
- (c) Some Salient Features of Gnoseological Bodhicitta199
- (d) Who Possesses Gnoseological Bodhicitta?201
- (e) Gnosis as Abiding in the Body202
- (f) The Three Modes of Emergence Open to Gnosis204
5. Ontological Bodhicitta205
- (a) The Conception of Ontological Bodhicitta206
- (b) An Outcome of a Philosophical Quest?211
- (c) Synonyms and Near Synonyms of Ontological Bodhicitta214
- (d) Two Distinct Perceptions of Ontological Bodhicitta216
- (e) Some Salient Features of Ontological Bodhicitta217
6. Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta217
- (a) What is Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta?218
- (b) Some Salient Features of Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta220
- (c) Probable Motives for the Conception of Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta220
- (d) The Problems of Physicality and Sexuality in Buddhism221
- (e) Psycho-Physiological Bodhicitta in Yogic Practices223
7. Semeiological Bodhicitta225
- (a) General Features of Bodhicitta Symbolism225
- (b) Putting Symbolism in a Buddhist Philosophical Context226
- (c) Three Kinds of Semeiological Bodhicitta: Visual, Verbal, and Visional227
- (d) Vajrayāna Symbolism and Literalism231
8. A Concluding Assessment of the Five Types of Bodhicitta232

Chapter Eight: Traditional Classifications of Bodhicitta

1. Introductory Remarks235
2. Bodhicitta as a Fusion of Śūnyatā/Prajñā and Karūṇā/ Upāya235
- (a) The Term Śūnyatākarūṇāgarbha236
- (b) The Term Śūnyatākarūṇābhinna238
- (c) The Importance of Upāya and Prajñā239
- (d) Tension between the Two Poles of Emptiness and Compassion243
- (e) Union of Emptiness and Compassion: A Tibetan Controversy245
- (f) Three Positions on the Fusion of Śūnyatā/Prajñā and Karūṇā/ Upāya245
3. Subclassifying Bodhicitta into Praṇidhicitta and Prasthānacitta246
- (a) The Locus Classicus of the Classification246
- (b) The Possible Historical Development of the Subclassification248
- (c) The Pervasiveness of the Classification248
- (d) Distinctions, Interpretations, and Controversies249
4. Subclassifying Bodhicitta into Conventional and Absolute251
- (a) Two Strands of the Conventional-Absolute Classification252
- (b) Textual Sources of the Conventional-Absolute Classification253
- (c) The Relative Chronology of the Conventional-Absolute Classification255
- (d) Two Different Perceptions of Conventional and Absolute Bodhicitta256
- (e) Can Absolute Bodhicitta be Generated Ritually? A Tibetan Controversy258
5. Leading to the Goal and Not Leading to the Goal261
6. A Stable One and an Unstable One262
7. Twofold Classifications of Cittotpāda in the Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī263
- (a) Samādānasāṃketika and Dharmatāpratilambhika263
- (b) The One That Is Uncertain and the One That Is Certain264
- (c) The One That Is Impure and the One That Is Pure264
- (d) The One That Is Weak and the One That Is Strong265
- (e) The One That Has Yielded the Ultimate Result and the One That Has
  Not yet265
8. Undistinguished and Distinguished Cittotpāda266
9. The One Characterised by Karuṇā and the One Characterised by Prajñā266
10. Ongoing and Non-Ongoing Cittotpāda267
11. A Threefold Classification: King-like, Boatman-like, and Herdsman-like267
- (a) Some Indian Precursors of the Classification268
- (b) Assessments by Some Tibetan Scholars269
12. A Fourfold Classification271
13. Subclassifying Bodhicitta into Ten Types273
14. Twenty-Two Kinds of Cittotpāda273
- (a) Sources of the Twenty-Two Kinds of Cittotpāda273
- (b) A Historical Sketch274
15. Concluding Remarks275

Chapter Nine: Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta

1. Introductory Remarks277
2. Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta in the Sūtra Sources277
3. Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta in the Bodhisattvabhūmi279
4. Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta in the Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra283
5. Causes and Conditions pertaining to Bodhicitta as Discussed Elsewhere284
6. Compassion as the Root Cause of Bodhicitta285
7. Concluding Remarks289

Chapter Ten: The Mahāyāna Observances and the Maintenance of Bodhicitta

1. Introductory Remarks291
2. The Model of the Four Cardinal Transgressions (mūlāpatti)292
3. Pledges and the Maintenance of Bodhicitta in the Kriyātantras295
- (a) The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhitantra296
- (b) The Guhyatantra298
- (c) The Susiddhikaratantra300
- (d) The Subāhuparipṛcchātantra303
4. Pledges and Maintenance of Bodhicitta in the Yogatantras305
- (a) The Durgatipariśodhanatantra305
- (b) The Vajraśikharatantra307
- (c) The Śrīparamādyatantra310
- (d) The Tattvasaṃgrahasūtra312
(5. Pledges and the Maintenance of Bodhicitta in the Mahāyoga System313
- (a) The Buddhasamāyogatantra319
- (b) The Kṛṣṇayamāritantra and Guhyasamājābhiṣekavidhi320
- (c) The Guhyendutilakatantra328
- (d) The *Guhyagarbhatantra329
- (e) Padmasambhava's Categories of Pledges329
6. All Mahāyāna Precepts Relating to the Maintenance of Bodhicitta330
7. Concluding Remarks331

Chapter Eleven: The Relapse and Restoration of Bodhicitta

1. Introductory Remarks333
2. Impairment to or Loss of Bodhicitta334
3. Causes of the Partial or Total Breach of Vows337
4. Causes of Impairment to or Loss of Bodhicitta338
5. The Abandonment of Bodhicitta as the Severest Transgression346
6. The Types of Setbacks348
7. The Restorability of Bodhicitta351
8. Retaking and Restoring Bodhicitta352
9. The Four Strengths355
10. Concluding Remarks356

Appendix A: A Critical Edition of the Sanskrit Text of Bodhisattvabhūmi 1.2

1. Introduction357
- (a) Extant Manuscripts, Critical Editions, and Other Related Studies on the Bodhisattvabhūmi357
- (b) A Brief Description of the Extant Manuscripts and Editions362
- (c) Some Observations as to the Stemmatic Relation of the MSS365
- (d) Method and Abbreviations Employed in the Critical Edition of the
  Sanskrit Text366
2. The Text368

Appendix B: A Critical Edition of the Tibetan Text of Bodhisattvabhūmi 1.2

1. Introduction379
2. The Text382

Abbreviations and Bibliography

1. Journals, Collections, Reference Books, Series, and Other Abbreviations391
2. Indian Sources393
3. Tibetan Sources404
4. Secondary Sources411

Index431

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+|BookToc=*{{i|'''Preface'''|13}}
+*{{i|'''Technical Note'''|19}}
+*'''Chapter One: A General Introduction: On Becoming a ''Buddha'' '''
+*{{i|1. Introductory Remarks|21}}
+*{{i|2. Buddhology|22}}
+*{{i|3. Buddhist Soteriology|30}}
+**{{i|(a) ''Emic'' and ''Etic'' Perceptions of Buddhism|30}}
+**{{i|(b) The Fundamental Features of Buddhist Soteriology|33}}
+**{{i|(c) The Mahāyāna Perception of the Quintessence of Buddhist Teachings|35}}
+**{{i|(d) Buddhist Soteriological Models and Goals|36}}
+**{{i|(e) Two Mahāyāna Soteriological Models of Becoming a Buddha|38}}
+*{{i|4. Ontology|41}}
+*{{i|5. Buddhist Epistemology and Gnoseology|43}}
+*{{i|6. Buddhist Axiology|45}}
+**{{i|(a) The Three-Vow Scheme|45}}
+**{{i|(b) Comparing and Contrasting the Three Vows|47}}
+*{{i|7. Concluding Remarks|56}}
+*'''Chapter Two: Previous Studies on ''Bodhicitta'' '''
+*{{i|1. Introductory Remarks|57}}
+*{{i|2. The Early Western Knowledge of ''Bodhicitta''|58}}
+*{{i|3. Monographs on the Study of ''Bodhicitta''|59}}
+**{{i|(a) Taishū Tagami (1990)|59}}
+**{{i|(b) Francis Brassard (2000)|60}}
+*{{i|4. Articles on ''Bodhicitta''|61}}
+**{{i|(a) Kumataro Kawada (1965)|61}}
+**{{i|(b) Lal Mani Joshi (1971)|62}}
+**{{i|(c) S. K. Nanayakkara (1971)|62}}
+**{{i|(d) Lobsang Dargay (1981)|63}}
+**{{i|(e) Gareth Sparham (1987)|63}}
+**{{i|(f) Gareth Sparham (1992)|64}}
+*{{i|5. Studies on ''Bodhicitta'' in Specific Canonical Works|65}}
+*{{i|6. On Translating the Term ''Bodhicitta''|69}}
+*{{i|7. A Study of ''Bodhicitta'': Still a Desideratum|70}}
+*{{i|8. Concluding Remarks|71}}
+*'''Chapter Three: The Historical and Doctrinal Background of the ''Bodhicitta'' Concept'''
+*{{i|1. Introductory Remarks|73}}
+*{{i|2. ''Bodhicitta'' as a Means of Compensating for the Loss of the Historical Buddha|74}}
+*{{i|3. The Doctrinal Foundations of ''Bodhicitta'' in Early Buddhism|77}}
+**{{i|(a) A ''Buddha'' as a Discoverer and Proclaimer of the True Reality|77}}
+**{{i|(b) The Plurality of ''Buddhas'' and ''Bodhisattvas'' in Early Buddhism|79}}
+**{{i|(c) The Concept of the Resolve Made by Previous ''Buddhas''|80}}
+**{{i|(d) The Altruism of the Historical Buddha|82}}
+**{{i|(e) Altruism in Early Buddhism|84}}
+**{{i|(f) Prerequisites for Becoming a ''Buddha'' in Early Buddhism|86}}
+**{{i|(g) The 'Golden Rule' in Early Buddhism|87}}
+*{{i|4. Concluding Remarks|89}}
+*'''Chapter Four: The Buddha's First Resolve to Become a ''Buddha'' '''
+*{{i|1. Introductory Remarks|91}}
+*{{i|2. The Historical Buddha as One of Many and Yet One of a Kind|92}}
+*{{i|3. Three Events Marking the Career of the Buddha|92}}
+**{{i|(a) The First Event: The Initial Resolve to Become a ''Buddha''|94}}
+***{{i|(i) Attempts to Resolve the Illogicality of Several 'First Times'|98}}
+***{{i|(ii) Was the Historical Bodhisattva 'King-Like' or 'Herdsman-Like'?|99}}
+**{{i|(b) The Second Event: Striving to Become a ''Buddha''|100}}
+**{{i|(c) The Third Event: The Time and Place of the Buddha's Awakening|102}}
+*{{i|4. A Historical Sketch of the Buddha's Initial Resolve to Become a ''Buddha''|104}}
+*{{i|5. Concluding Remarks|105}}
+*'''Chapter Five: Mahāyāna, ''Bodhisattva'', and ''Bodhicitta'' '''
+*{{i|1. Introductory Remarks|107}}
+*{{i|2. The Concepts of ''Yāna'' in Buddhism|109}}
+**{{i|(a) The Various Models of ''Yāna''|110}}
+***{{i|(i) The One-Vehicle Model|111}}
+***{{i|(ii) The Two-Vehicle Model|112}}
+***{{i|(iii) The Three-Vehicle Model|113}}
+***{{i|(iv) The Four-Vehicle Model|115}}
+***{{i|(v) The Five-Vehicle Model|116}}
+***{{i|(vi) The Nine-Vehicle Model|117}}
+***{{i|(vii) The n-Vehicle Model|118}}
+***{{i|(viii) The No-Vehicle Model|119}}
+**{{i|(b) Which Vehicles Are Buddhist?|120}}
+**{{i|(c) Mahāyāna|121}}
+***{{i|((i) Dissent on the Origin of Mahayana|121}}
+***{{i|((ii) The Content of Mahāyāna|122}}
+***{{i|((iii) Is Mahāyāna Indispensable? Is Vajrayāna Indispensable?|125}}
+*{{i|(3. The Concepts of ''Sattva'' and ''Bodhisattva''|126}}
+**{{i|(a) No ''Bodhisattvas'' without ''Sattvas''|127}}
+**{{i|(b) Faith-oriented and Reason-oriented Sentient Beings|128}}
+**{{i|(c) The Term ''Bodhisattva''|129}}
+**{{i|(d) Synonyms of ''Bodhisattva''|133}}
+**{{i|(e) Types of ''Bodhisattvas''|134}}
+***{{i|(i) Historical, Celestial, and Earthly ''Bodhisattvas''|135}}
+***{{i|(ii) Human and Non-human ''Bodhisattvas''|136}}
+***{{i|(iii) Male and Female ''Bodhisattvas''|137}}
+***{{i|(iv) Ordained and Lay ''Bodhisattvas''|139}}
+***{{i|(v) ''Bodhisattvas'' with Different Backgrounds|139}}
+**{{i|(f) The ''Śrāvaka-Bodhisattva'' Distinction|140}}
+**{{i|(g) The Concept of ''Vajrasattva''|142}}
+*{{i|4. The Term ''Bodhicitta'' and Its Definition|144}}
+**{{i|(a) The Term ''Bodhicitta'' in the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā''|144}}
+**{{i|(b) The Term ''Bodhicitta'' in the ''Drumakinnararājaparipṛcchāsūtra''|145}}
+**{{i|(c) The Term ''Bodhicitta'' in the ''Bodhisattvabhūmi''|148}}
+**{{i|(d) The Relative Chronology of the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'' and the ''Bodhisattvabhūmi''|148}}
+**{{i|(e) The Terms ''Cittotpāda'', ''Bodhicitta'', and ''Bodhicittotpāda''|149}}
+**{{i|(f) Some Definitions of ''Bodhicitta'' or ''Cittotpāda''|151}}
+**{{i|(g) How Indispensable Is ''Bodhicitta'' for a ''Bodhisattva''?|154}}
+**{{i|(h) Benefits and Functions of ''Bodhicitta''|160}}
+*{{i|5. Concluding Remarks|166}}
+*'''Chapter Six: The Two ''Bodhicittotpāda'' Traditions'''
+*{{i|I. Introductory Remarks|169}}
+*{{i|2. The Two ''Bodhicittotpāda'' Traditions|170}}
+*{{i|3. Tibetan Assessments of the Two ''Bodhicittotpāda'' Traditions|172}}
+*{{i|4. The Names of the Two ''Bodhicittotpāda'' Traditions|173}}
+*{{i|5. The Two ''Bodhicittotpāda'' Traditions: The Basis of the Distinctions|175}}
+*{{i|6. The Two ''Bodhicittotpāda'' Traditions: Personal Authorities|175}}
+*{{i|7. The Two ''Bodhicittotpāda'' Traditions: Scriptural Authorities|176}}
+*{{i|8. The Historical Background of the ''Bodhicittotpāda'' Ritual|177}}
+*{{i|9. What Is Actually Generated by the Ritual?|180}}
+*{{i|10. The Optionality of an Officiant in the Two Traditions|181}}
+*{{i|11. Qualifications for Officiants in the Two Traditions|182}}
+*{{i|12. The Eligibility of Candidates in the Two Traditions|183}}
+*{{i|13. The Preparatory Procedures of the ''Bodhicittotpāda'' Ritual|186}}
+*{{i|14. The Main Procedures of the ''Bodhicittotpāda'' Ritual|187}}
+*{{i|15. The Concluding Procedures of the ''Bodhicittotpāda'' Ritual|188}}
+*{{i|16. Observances and Offences in the Two Traditions|188}}
+**{{i|(a) The Cardinal Transgressions in the Mañjuśrī-Nāgārjuna Tradition|189}}
+**{{i|(b) The Cardinal Transgressions in the Maitreya-Asaṅga Tradition|191}}
+**{{i|(c) The Minor Offences in the Two Traditions|192}}
+*{{i|17. Reestablishing a Broken Vow in the Two Traditions|193}}
+*{{i|18. Concluding Remarks|194}}
+*'''Chapter Seven: A Typology of ''Bodhicitta'' '''
+*{{i|1. Introductory Remarks|195}}
+*{{i|2. An Overview of the Five Types of ''Bodhicitta''|196}}
+*{{i|3. Ethico-Spiritual ''Bodhicitta''|197}}
+*{{i|4. Gnoseological ''Bodhicitta''|198}}
+**{{i|(a) What Gnoseologicai ''Bodhicitta'' Is|198}}
+**{{i|(b) Some Synonyms of Gnoseological ''Bodhicitta''|198}}
+**{{i|(c) Some Salient Features of Gnoseological ''Bodhicitta''|199}}
+**{{i|(d) Who Possesses Gnoseological ''Bodhicitta''?|201}}
+**{{i|(e) Gnosis as Abiding in the Body|202}}
+**{{i|(f) The Three Modes of Emergence Open to Gnosis|204}}
+*{{i|5. Ontological ''Bodhicitta''|205}}
+**{{i|(a) The Conception of Ontological ''Bodhicitta''|206}}
+**{{i|(b) An Outcome of a Philosophical Quest?|211}}
+**{{i|(c) Synonyms and Near Synonyms of Ontological ''Bodhicitta''|214}}
+**{{i|(d) Two Distinct Perceptions of Ontological ''Bodhicitta''|216}}
+**{{i|(e) Some Salient Features of Ontological ''Bodhicitta''|217}}
+*{{i|6. Psycho-Physiological ''Bodhicitta''|217}}
+**{{i|(a) What is Psycho-Physiological ''Bodhicitta''?|218}}
+**{{i|(b) Some Salient Features of Psycho-Physiological ''Bodhicitta''|220}}
+**{{i|(c) Probable Motives for the Conception of Psycho-Physiological ''Bodhicitta''|220}}
+**{{i|(d) The Problems of Physicality and Sexuality in Buddhism|221}}
+**{{i|(e) Psycho-Physiological ''Bodhicitta'' in Yogic Practices|223}}
+*{{i|7. Semeiological ''Bodhicitta''|225}}
+**{{i|(a) General Features of ''Bodhicitta'' Symbolism|225}}
+**{{i|(b) Putting Symbolism in a Buddhist Philosophical Context|226}}
+**{{i|(c) Three Kinds of Semeiological ''Bodhicitta'': Visual, Verbal, and Visional|227}}
+**{{i|(d) Vajrayāna Symbolism and Literalism|231}}
+*{{i|8. A Concluding Assessment of the Five Types of ''Bodhicitta''|232}}
+*'''Chapter Eight: Traditional Classifications of ''Bodhicitta'' '''
+*{{i|1. Introductory Remarks|235}}
+*{{i|2. ''Bodhicitta'' as a Fusion of ''Śūnyatā''/''Prajñā'' and ''Karūṇā''/ ''Upāya''|235}}
+**{{i|(a) The Term ''Śūnyatākarūṇāgarbha''|236}}
+**{{i|(b) The Term ''Śūnyatākarūṇābhinna''|238}}
+**{{i|(c) The Importance of ''Upāya'' and ''Prajñā''|239}}
+**{{i|(d) Tension between the Two Poles of Emptiness and Compassion|243}}
+**{{i|(e) Union of Emptiness and Compassion: A Tibetan Controversy|245}}
+**{{i|(f) Three Positions on the Fusion of ''Śūnyatā''/''Prajñā'' and  ''Karūṇā''/ ''Upāya''|245}}
+*{{i|3. Subclassifying ''Bodhicitta'' into ''Praṇidhicitta'' and ''Prasthānacitta''|246}}
+**{{i|(a) The Locus Classicus of the Classification|246}}
+**{{i|(b) The Possible Historical Development of the Subclassification|248}}
+**{{i|(c) The Pervasiveness of the Classification|248}}
+**{{i|(d) Distinctions, Interpretations, and Controversies|249}}
+*{{i|4. Subclassifying ''Bodhicitta'' into Conventional and Absolute|251}}
+**{{i|(a) Two Strands of the Conventional-Absolute Classification|252}}
+**{{i|(b) Textual Sources of the Conventional-Absolute Classification|253}}
+**{{i|(c) The Relative Chronology of the Conventional-Absolute Classification|255}}
+**{{i|(d) Two Different Perceptions of Conventional and Absolute ''Bodhicitta''|256}}
+**{{i|(e) Can Absolute ''Bodhicitta'' be Generated Ritually? A Tibetan Controversy|258}}
+*{{i|5. Leading to the Goal and Not Leading to the Goal|261}}
+*{{i|6. A Stable One and an Unstable One|262}}
+*{{i|7. Twofold Classifications of ''Cittotpāda'' in the ''Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī''|263}}
+**{{i|(a) ''Samādānasāṃketika'' and ''Dharmatāpratilambhika''|263}}
+**{{i|(b) The One That Is Uncertain and the One That Is Certain|264}}
+**{{i|(c) The One That Is Impure and the One That Is Pure|264}}
+**{{i|(d) The One That Is Weak and the One That Is Strong|265}}
+**{{i|(e) The One That Has Yielded the Ultimate Result and the One That Has<br>Not yet|265}}
+*{{i|8. Undistinguished and Distinguished ''Cittotpāda''|266}}
+*{{i|9. The One Characterised by ''Karuṇā'' and the One Characterised by ''Prajñā''|266}}
+*{{i|10. Ongoing and Non-Ongoing ''Cittotpāda''|267}}
+*{{i|11. A Threefold Classification: King-like, Boatman-like, and Herdsman-like|267}}
+**{{i|(a) Some Indian Precursors of the Classification|268}}
+**{{i|(b) Assessments by Some Tibetan Scholars|269}}
+*{{i|12. A Fourfold Classification|271}}
+*{{i|13. Subclassifying ''Bodhicitta'' into Ten Types|273}}
+*{{i|14. Twenty-Two Kinds of ''Cittotpāda''|273}}
+**{{i|(a) Sources of the Twenty-Two Kinds of ''Cittotpāda''|273}}
+**{{i|(b) A Historical Sketch|274}}
+*{{i|15. Concluding Remarks|275}}
+*'''Chapter Nine: Causes and Conditions pertaining to ''Bodhicitta'' '''
+*{{i|1. Introductory Remarks|277}}
+*{{i|2. Causes and Conditions pertaining to ''Bodhicitta'' in the ''Sūtra'' Sources|277}}
+*{{i|3. Causes and Conditions pertaining to ''Bodhicitta'' in the ''Bodhisattvabhūmi''|279}}
+*{{i|4. Causes and Conditions pertaining to ''Bodhicitta'' in the ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra''|283}}
+*{{i|5. Causes and Conditions pertaining to ''Bodhicitta'' as Discussed Elsewhere|284}}
+*{{i|6. Compassion as the Root Cause of ''Bodhicitta''|285}}
+*{{i|7. Concluding Remarks|289}}
+*'''Chapter Ten: The Mahāyāna Observances and the Maintenance of ''Bodhicitta'' '''
+*{{i|1. Introductory Remarks|291}}
+*{{i|2. The Model of the Four Cardinal Transgressions (''mūlāpatti'')|292}}
+*{{i|3. Pledges and the Maintenance of ''Bodhicitta'' in the ''Kriyātantras''|295}}
+**{{i|(a) The ''Vairocanābhisaṃbodhitantra''|296}}
+**{{i|(b) The ''Guhyatantra''|298}}
+**{{i|(c) The ''Susiddhikaratantra''|300}}
+**{{i|(d) The ''Subāhuparipṛcchātantra''|303}}
+*{{i|4. Pledges and Maintenance of ''Bodhicitta'' in the ''Yogatantras''|305}}
+**{{i|(a) The ''Durgatipariśodhanatantra''|305}}
+**{{i|(b) The ''Vajraśikharatantra''|307}}
+**{{i|(c) The ''Śrīparamādyatantra''|310}}
+**{{i|(d) The ''Tattvasaṃgrahasūtra''|312}}
+*{{i|(5. Pledges and the Maintenance of ''Bodhicitta'' in the ''Mahāyoga'' System|313}}
+**{{i|(a) The ''Buddhasamāyogatantra''|319}}
+**{{i|(b) The ''Kṛṣṇayamāritantra'' and ''Guhyasamājābhiṣekavidhi''|320}}
+**{{i|(c) The ''Guhyendutilakatantra''|328}}
+**{{i|(d) The *''Guhyagarbhatantra''|329}}
+**{{i|(e) Padmasambhava's Categories of Pledges|329}}
+*{{i|6. All Mahāyāna Precepts Relating to the Maintenance of ''Bodhicitta''|330}}
+*{{i|7. Concluding Remarks|331}}
+*'''Chapter Eleven: The Relapse and Restoration of ''Bodhicitta'' '''
+*{{i|1. Introductory Remarks|333}}
+*{{i|2. Impairment to or Loss of ''Bodhicitta''|334}}
+*{{i|3. Causes of the Partial or Total Breach of Vows|337}}
+*{{i|4. Causes of Impairment to or Loss of ''Bodhicitta''|338}}
+*{{i|5. The Abandonment of ''Bodhicitta'' as the Severest Transgression|346}}
+*{{i|6. The Types of Setbacks|348}}
+*{{i|7. The Restorability of ''Bodhicitta''|351}}
+*{{i|8. Retaking and Restoring ''Bodhicitta''|352}}
+*{{i|9. The Four Strengths|355}}
+*{{i|10. Concluding Remarks|356}}
+*'''Appendix A: A Critical Edition of the Sanskrit Text of ''Bodhisattvabhūmi'' 1.2'''
+*{{i|1. Introduction|357}}
+**{{i|(a) Extant Manuscripts, Critical Editions, and Other Related Studies on the ''Bodhisattvabhūmi''|357}}
+**{{i|(b) A Brief Description of the Extant Manuscripts and Editions|362}}
+**{{i|(c) Some Observations as to the Stemmatic Relation of the MSS|365}}
+**{{i|(d) Method and Abbreviations Employed in the Critical Edition of the<br>Sanskrit Text|366}}
+*{{i|2. The Text|368}}
+*'''Appendix B: A Critical Edition of the Tibetan Text of ''Bodhisattvabhūmi'' 1.2'''
+*{{i|1. Introduction|379}}
+*{{i|2. The Text|382}}
+*'''Abbreviations and Bibliography'''
+*{{i|1. Journals, Collections, Reference Books, Series, and Other Abbreviations|391}}
+*{{i|2. Indian Sources|393}}
+*{{i|3. Tibetan Sources|404}}
+*{{i|4. Secondary Sources|411}}
+*{{i|'''Index'''|431}}
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